Structure Of Dna Essays - Genetics, Molecular Biology, Nucleic Acids

Structure Of Dna The ?Thread of Life?, is deoxyribonucleic acid, also known as DNA. This molecule which is the bases of life, is spiral shaped and found in the nucleus of cells. DNA has the genetic code for bodies, controls development of embryo's, and is able to repair damage caused to itself. All DNA molecules have linked units called nucleotides. These nucleotides have sub-units that have 5 carbon sugars that are called deoxyribose. DNA is composed of four bases called adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. These are some of the main principles of DNA. What we know today about structure of DNA begins in 1868 when a Swiss biologist Friedrich Miescher did the first experiments on the nuclei of cells. Miescher used the nuclei of pus cells from old medical bandages. In these pus cells he found What We know today about structure of DNA begins in 1868 when a Swiss biologist Friedrich Miescher did the first experiments on the nuclei of cells. Miescher used the nuclei of pus cells from old medical bandages. In these pus cells he found phosphorus with a substance he called nuclein. This nuclein has an acidic portion which is classified as DNA. Another scientist Thomas Hunt Morgan made an important discovery around 1900. He observed that certain characteristics were inherited quickly through numerous generations of fruit flies. So he made the conclusion that these genes must be near one another on the chromosome. In 1943 Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, three scientists working in the Rockefeller institute, preformed an exper iment by taking DNA from a virulent (disease-causing) strain of Streptococcus pneumonae and transformed a non-virulent (inactive) form back to a virulent form. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty discovered from their experiments that DNA carried a virulent message that can be transferred into the recipient of non-virulent cells. This proved that DNA was a carrier of genetic information. An important discovery of the 1940's was the discovery by Erwin Chargaff who established that ?heredity's alphabet? which are the four bases adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine(C) can occur in different orders in different organisms. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick put forth a radical new idea about DNA. Their idea suggested that the DNA molecule was made up of two helical chains instead of three intertwined chains as previously thought. Today we have a strong knowledge of DNA and scientists are applying that knowledge to a three billion dollar project called the human genome project. This project will examine the structure of human DNA and map out every single gene in the human body and will take 15 years. The strong knowledge that we have of DNA allows the scientist to map out the genes at about 1 to 2 per day. This may not seem to be a very fast rate but scientists have already found the genes that cause diseases such as Hunnington's, Lou Gerhig's, and the ?Bubble-Boy? disease. Another way that we use our strong knowledge of DNA is in criminal identification. This plays a major role in today's society. Because each person's DNA is different (except in identical twins) police officers can take blood or semen samples from a crime scene and take them to the lab for identification. This can insure the guilt or innocence of a suspect. An example of this is the O.J. Simpson case where investigators tried to match O.J.'s DNA to the DNA at the scene of the crime. Another way scientists apply their knowledge of DNA today is by using special enzymes called restriction enzymes that cut through the phosphate of DNA and these cut ends are called ?sticky ends? because they easily attract other tails from other DNA. Scientist use these restriction enzymes for genetic engineering by removing a gene from one organism to another. In the future DNA has great possibilities for the betterment of mankind and also the detriment. The most obvious and controversial possibility would be the cloning of humans. Scientists have already cloned sheep and other such organisms but have yet to take the step for cloning a human even though the technology is in place, the ethics of this may not be. The method to arrive at is quite

Marine Biology Essays - Aquatic Ecology, Ocean Pollution

Marine Biology Essays - Aquatic Ecology, Ocean Pollution Marine Biology Aquarium Assignment A major source of coastal pollutants, human sewage fouls bays and beaches with both toxic and nontoxic pollutants. Although billions of dollars have been invested in sewage treatment plants to treat wastewater, new and growing coastal communities have increased the amount of discharge into oceans and estuaries. The United States Office of Technology Assessment has identified thirteen hundred major industries and six hundred municipal wastewater treatment plants that discharge into coastal waters of the United States. Many toxic substances enter the sea through the sewer systems, but others originate as industrial discharges. For many toxic substances, we do not yet know how to determine their extent or fate in the marine environment or to evaluate their effects on marine life. Some of the better-known trace metals and toxic chemicals include mercury, copper, lead, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, synthetic chlorine-containing compounds, are created for use as pesticides or are by-products of the manufacture of plastics. Oil is a very dangerous thing when it comes to oil spills into the ocean. These catastrophic oil spills engender a concern for the marine environment as no invisible containment can. Spilled oil floats on seawater and provides a constant reminder of its presence until it is washed ashore, sinks, or evaporates. Large volumes of oil suffocate benthic organisms by clogging their gills and filtering structures or fouling their digestive tracts. Marine birds and mammals suffer heavily as their feathers or fur become oil soaked and matter, and they lose insulation and buoyancy. Until recently, marine debris was considered to be of minor importance when compared to other pollutants. Problems caused by marine debris, however may rival or exceed those resulting from some better known pollutants, including oil. By definition, marine debris is any manufactured object discarded in the marine environment. When dumped, it may sink to the sea floor, remain suspended at mid-depths, or float at the surface and eventually be carried ashore by winds and waves. Plastics constitute as great an environmental threat as all the other kinds of debris, combined. Although plastics may break up into smaller pieces, they degrade much more slowly than most other kinds of debris, and most plastics float. Concentrations of plastics tend to be highest in the Northern Hemisphere, where vessel traffic is the heaviest, where most plastics manufacturers and fabricators are located, and where more intensive recreational use is made of beaches and coastal waters. Hopefully, as we approach the twenty-first century, we can learn to leave some old and wasteful habits behind. It will not be easy or simple, but each one of us must develop a sense of stewardship toward the world ocean and its

Journal Article Review - Phonemic Awareness Essay

Journal Article Review - Phonemic Awareness - Essay Example Performance of other abilities such as sound-based tasks and other related activities can be performed. Although this is the case there are differences in the performance of children with CI and those with normal hearing capabilities. In terms of the phonological awareness (PA) for children with CI, learning phase that is protracted and long can be observed. Controlled tasks and revealed no significant difference from the normal children (Spencer and Tomblin, 2008). Based on the objective of the study that is to present a comparative analysis in the different hearings properties such as phonological awareness in relation to CI use, it can be perceived that the research conducted was able to achieve such goal. The exercises and tests that had been undertaken can be considered simple yet were able to clearly present the needed data. Variation in the use of tasks to test the hypotheses can also be observed in the research undertaken. These characteristics of the results are important in the characterization of the success of the study. It can be perceived that the methodology had been able to cover the possible points that are needed to be included in the area under study. Aside from the methodology undertaken, the presentation of the data and the analysis of the results had been presented in a commendable manner. Important characteristics of the organization of data are simple, clear and can easily be analyzed and understood. The presentation and development of the paper can also be considered important. For the said paper, the ideas and concepts had been developed and presented clearly and segregated properly for better understanding. The presentation of pertinent data related to phonological awareness is also essential. Included in the tasks under study are rhyming tasks, blending words task and Elision task which are determinants of the capabilities of the CI children in relation to learning how to read (Spencer and Tomblin, 2008). These

Opening a Krispy Kreme Doughnut in Spain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Opening a Krispy Kreme Doughnut in Spain - Essay Example The target group should be adolescents and children from affluent households who would not mind spending more for being a part of hip and happening brigade (ICMR, 2003). Undertaking local manufacturing operations This is perhaps the trickiest part of all since Krispy Kreme Doughnuts are advertised as tasting best when they are served hot off the frying pan. Hence, it is imperative that some sort of heating arrangement must be available at the outlet but the crucial question is whether local manufacturing operations should, rather, could be undertaken. Considering the distance between Spain and USA and also taking into account the freshness of these doughnuts which happens to be one of their USPs; even if the first few consignments are air freighted from US it would not be economically feasible to get them on a regular basis from United States. So, with some initial help from the parent company and under the sharp eyes of their quality controllers, local production must have to be und ertaken after imparting sufficient training to local recruits.

Quantitative Analysis for Managers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Quantitative Analysis for Managers - Essay Example This essay describes an allocation of manufacturing overheads and explaines it using an examples. This essay responses to the request for the analyses of the allocation of manufacturing overheads related to two our products. A comprehensive report detailing the allocation basis and possibilities of our two products Rona Loa coffee and Colombian coffee along with their related implications and recommendations are provided for your study. Using activity based costing as the basis for assigning manufacturing overhead cost to products, the researcher established the total amount of manufacturing overhead cost assigned to the Rona Loa coffee and to the Colombian coffee for the year amounts to  £32,900 AND  £7,300 respectively. The amount of manufacturing overhead cost per kilo of the Rona Loa coffee and the Colombian coffee amounts to  £0.33  £3.65 respectively. The unit product cost of one kilo of the Rona Loa coffee and one kilo of the Colombian coffee amounts to  £4.83  £7. 15 respectively. The researcher also calculated costing as the basis for assigning manufacturing overhead cost to products, the total amount of manufacturing overhead cost assigned to the Rona Loa coffee and to the Colombian coffee for the year amounts to  £32,900 AND  £7,300 respectively. For detailed working regarding the calculation of these amounts please refer Appendix A and B. It also provides the reader with the detailed statistics tables and results.... Traditional costing systems therefore can result in significant under-costing and over-costing. However, traditional costing systems are simpler and easier to implement than ABC systems. The use of such a rate enables us to determine the approximate total cost of each job when completed. In recent years increased automation in manufacturing operations has resulted in a trend towards machine hours as the activity base in the calculation. It is believed fluctuations in product costs serve no useful purpose. To avoid such fluctuations, actual overhead rates could be computed on an annual or less-frequent basis. However, if the overhead rate is computed annually based on the actual costs and activity for the year, the manufacturing overhead assigned to any particular job would not be known until the end of the year. Simplistic overhead allocations using a declining labour base cannot be justified, particularly when information processing cost are no longer a barrier to introducing more s ophisticated cost systems (Drury 2004). ABC provides a way to allocate costs more accurately when overhead costs are not incurred at the same rate as direct labor hours. Using ABC means that all the individual activities that are part of a process can be accurately costed. For example in case of our entity it will be possible to accurately determine the cost of each activity involved in processing a coffee from input to final packaging. In this way it will be easy to identify the most and least expensive parts of the process. Process improvement activity could then focus on the most expensive parts of the process. A model could then be constructed showing a comparison between the existing process costs and the redesigned process and its associated costs.

Geographic Study of Mountain Area

Geographic Study of Mountain Area CHAPTER II STUDY AREA PROFILE 2.0 General: The study area (13858.83 ha) is a mountain range between River Pravara and River Mula Basin. The range started from western boarder at Ghatghar village and end eastern border at village Washere in the Akole tahsil, district Ahmendagar of Maharashtra state. The extent of study area is 19 ° 35 06.86 to 19 ° 30 13.08 N latitude and 73 ° 37 00.03 to 74 ° 04 24.65 E longitude. It covers parts of the Survey of India topographic sheet numbers 47 E/ 10, 11, 14, 15 and 47 I/ 2, 3. The depth and water-holding capacity of the soils are varied even if there is slightly change in slopes which is the one of the reason in the variation of forest land. The slope of the area is decreasing from NW to SE respectively and the height varies from 560 m to 1646 meters above mean sea level. Study area is distributed in the Sahyadri mountains (Western ghat) region of the Maharashtra state. Geologically this area formed from basaltic lava. Basalt rock prevent percolation of rainy, reservoir water in to underground zone. Due to rock type the soil cover is very shallow at the top of the mountain and increasing its deepness at foothill zones near water reservoirs. Basic Intrusive (Dykes) mainly found nearby this area. This are the approximate reasons of the shallow soil cover. Very shallow loamy, shallow clayey soil found on the moderate (1 °- 3 °) and stiff (3 °- 6 °) slope. Soil moisture impact on the amount of the vegetation cover with respect to soil type and slope. Therefore, North West and South zone have maximum vegetation cover compare to other land of the study area. It receives annual rainfall about 440.4 mm. The mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 39.80 C and 8.70 C respectively. Local tribal people engages with the agricultural activities at reclaimed land from forest area. Forestry is the second occupation after agriculture. 2.1 Geology: Study area is a part of Sahyadri Mountain Range (Western Ghat). Also called as Deccan Trap formed by basaltic rocks; amygdaloidal basalts form the bedrock. This area has shallow soil like loam, clayey; again divided in to sub types based on depth and slope classes. Overlying weathered and fractured rocks, resting on hard massive basalt. The basalts are nearly horizontal, separated by thin layers of ancient soil and volcanic ash (red bole). The basalt flows are nearly flat-lying (the sequence has a regional southerly dip of 0.5-1 °) and mainly belong to the Thakurvadi Formation (Fm) of the Kalsubai Subgroup (Khadri et al. 1988; Subbarao and Hooper 1988). The lithology of the area indicating that around 77.17 % area covered by 12-14 compound pahoehoe flows and some Aa flows (max 206m). Around 4.53 % by 2 compound pahoehoe flows (40-50m) and Megacryst compound pahoehoe basaltic flow M3 (50-60m) up to 3.26 %. Remaing 0.89% covered by 5 Aa and 1 compound pahoehoe basaltic lava flows (Max. 160m); 4-5 compound pahoehoe basaltic lava flows (Max. 150m), Basik Sill/Lava channels respectively. The regional stratigraphy of the Deccan basalts has been described by Beane et al. (1989), Khadri et al (1988), and Subbarao and Hooper (1988). Structural indices indicate the part of basic intrusive (dykes) in the part of noer-west and south-east. One fault line cross at the middle part of the study area. 2.2 Relief: Study situated at the middle of the tehsil Akole. It has horizontal shape and act like a natural water divider. Relief turn and fix the surface geographical landforms. The altitude of this area is varies from less than 640 meter (minimum) to 1646 meter (maximum). The formation of soil, natural vegetation cover and soil moisture conditions are totally controlled by the status of the relief. Contour lines demarcate the height of the study area above mean sea level. The Kalasubai (1646m) highest peak of the Maharashtra state located in the Akole tehsil. In the tehsil second highest peak Harishchandragarh (1422m) located in the south-west part of the study area. Relief decreasing toward to the Washere village of this mountain range. Drainage network flow depends on relief is explained in next point. 2.3 Slope: Slope of the study area calculated in degree (0 ° to 90 °) on the basis of contours. This slope of the area divided in to 7 classes. Gentle slope has up to 1 ° slope where water reserve and collected in dam. Soil depth, cover and types also depends on the nature of slope. Hill top and cliff sides has precipitous to very steep slope (12 ° to 90 °). At foothill slope moderate to steep (1 ° to 12 °) zone has maximum forest cover in north-west and south-west direction. Eroded material on the top hill concentrating on the foothill slopes and favourable for soil formation. That is why the in this area soil moisture, soil depth and vegetation cover found more than other zone. Soil types and different characteristics has been elaborated in the next point. 2.4 Drainage: Network of drainage is developing continually and it’s responsible for the different landform creation. Relief controlled the drainage flow and streams erode land surface in to different geographical landform features. Relief and streams has strong correlation. Study area has an origin point of the main river Pravara. River flows from north-west to north-east direction. This river has main and minor dam. Bhandardara is main dam situated on river Pravara, which is an important land-cover feature in study area. At the time of robust forest change analysis this water body play an important role. Soil moisture depend on drainage network and water reservoirs after rainy season. It made difference in the type of vegetation cover from dense forest to open scrub land. Drainage pattern related to slope and slope related to forest growth has been explained in detailed in the next point. 2.5 Soil: The growth and reproduction of forest cannot be understood without the knowledge of soil. The soil and vegetation have a complex interrelation because they develop together over a long period of time. The vegetation influences the chemical properties of soil to a great extent. The selective absorption of nutrient elements by different tree species and their capacity to return them to the soil brings about changes in soil properties (Singh et al. 1986). Soil element is one of the most important biophysical matter. Concentration of elements in the soils is a good indicator of their availability to plants. Their presence in soil would give good information towards the knowledge of nutrient cycling and bio-chemical cycle in the soil–plant ecosystem (Pandit and Thampan 1988). Generation of soil is depend on geology, topography, time span, climatic conditions, organic and inorganic factors, etc. Forests in general have a greater influence on soil conditions than most other plant eco system types, due to a well-developed ‘‘O’’ horizon, moderating temperature, and humidity at the soil surface, input of litter with high lignin content, high total net primary production, and high water and nutrient demand (Binkley and Giardina 1998). Study area is a hilly zone, soil is very shallow at the top-hills while excessively drained loamy soil (a rich soil consisting of a mixture of sand and clay and decaying organic materials) found at steep slopes north-west direction. Shallow well drained clayey soil and slightly deep excessively drained loamy soil found over moderate to gentle slope respectively. Clay soils, are made up of very fine, microscopic particles. These tiny particles fit together tightly, resulting in tiny pore spaces between them. The tiny pore spaces allow water to move through them, but at a much slower pace than in sandy soils. Clay soils drain quite slowly and hold more water than sandy soils. Loams soil capacity of maximum water holding (MWHC) approximately 0.18 inches of water per inch of soil depth, and clays hold up to 0.17 inches of water per inch of soil depth. However, soil types, soil elements, soil depth depends on the geology of the study area, explained in next point. 2.6Population and economic activities: Humans being living surrounding this area most are the tribal population. Primary economical activities including shifting cultivation, fishery, 2.7Spectral properties of plants in the forest: (1st ch) Interaction of radiation with plant leaves is extremely complex. General features of this interaction have been studied but many spectral features are yet unexplained. Gates et al., (1965) are considered pioneers, who have studied spectral characteristics of leaf reflection, transmission and absorption. Optical properties of plants have been further studied to understand the mechanisms involved by Gausman and Allen (1973), Wooley (1971) and Allen et al., (1970). It is the synthesis of the parameters like reflection of plant parts, reflection of plant canopies, nature and state of plant canopies and Structure and texture of plant canopies, which will be required to fully understand the remote sensing data collected from space borne and aerial platforms. They have been attempted for crop canopies through the development of models but not yet fully achieved. It will be initially required to discuss the electromagnetic spectrum and its interaction with vegetation canopies. Subsequent factors affecting the spectral reflectance of plant canopies with its possible applications in remote sensing technology would be discussed. The vegetation reflectance is influenced by the reflectance characteristics of individual plant organs, canopy organization and type, growth stage of plants, structure and texture of the canopies. The synthesis of the above four aspects provides true reflectance characteristic. However, various authors without fully achieving models to determine vegetation reflectance characteristics have studied effect of individual parameters. 2.6.1 Nature of the Plant: Numerous measurements have been performed to evaluate the spectral response of various categories of plants with a spectrophotometer (Fig. ***). For a plant in its normal state i.e., typical and healthy the spectral reflectance is specific of the group, the species and even of the variety at a given stage in its phenological evolution. The general aspects of spectral reflectance of healthy plant in the range from 0.4 to 2.6  µm is shown in figure ****. The very abrupt increase in reflectance near 0.7  µm and the fairly abrupt decrease near 1.5  µm are present for all mature, healthy green leaves. Very high; further in the far infrared >3.0  µm. Thus, the typical spectral curve of plant is divided into three prominent zones correlated with morphological characteristics of the leaves (Gates, 1971). 2.6.2 à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Pigment Absorption Zone: The important pigments, viz. chlorophyll, xanthophylls and carotenoids absorb energy strongly in ultraviolet blue and red regions of the EMR. The reflectance and transmittance are weak. The absorbed energy of this part of this spectrum is utilized for the photosynthetic activity (Allen et al. 1970). 2.6.3 Multidioptric Reflectance Zone: In this zone, the reflectance is high, while the absorbptance remains weak. All the unabsorbed energy (30 to 70% according to the type of plant) is transmitted. They reflectance is essentially due to the internal structure of the leaf and the radiation is able to penetrate. The reflectance from internal structure is of physical more than chemical nature. Apart front the contribution of the waxy cuticle, the magnitude of the reflectance depends primarily upon the amount of spongy mesophyll. 2.6.4 à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Hydric Zone: Amount of water inside the leaf affect the pattern of spectral reflectance with water specific absorption bands at 1.45  µm, 1.95  µm and 2.6  µm. Liquid water in a leaf causes strong absorption throughout middle infrared region. Beyond 2.5  µm the reflectance becomes less than 5% due to atmospheric absorption and beyond 3  µm the vegetation starts acting as quasi blackbody (Gates et al., 1965). There are numerous factors either internal of the plant or external coming from the environmental conditions have an influence on the specific spectral reflectance. The above descriptions are true only for a normal, mature and healthy vegetation. The factors which affect the spectral reflectance of leaves are leaf structure, maturity, pigmentation, sun exposition, phyllotaxis, pubescene, turgidity (water content) nutritional status and, disease etc. Important factors are pigmentation, nutritional status, anatomy of leaves and water content. While, sun exposition and phyllotaxy affects the canopy reflectance, phenological state and disease are linked to the primary factors affecting the spectral reflectance (Wooley, 1971). 2.7Spectral vegetation indices: Radiant energy intercepted by a vegetative canopy is primarily scattered by leaves either away from the leaf surface or to the leaf interior. The scattered radiation is reflected, transmitted or absorbed by leaves. The partitioning of radiation a reflected, transmitted or absorbed energy depends on a number of factor including leaf cellular structures (Gates et al. 1965; Kfipling, 1970; Woolley, 1971), leaf pubescence and roughness (Gausman, 1977), leaf morphology and physiology (Gausman et al., 1969 a, b; Gausman and Allen, 1973; Gausman et al., 1971) and leaf surface characteristics (Breece and Hommes, 1971; Grant, 1985). Leaves are not perfectly diffuse reflectors but have diffuse and specular characteristics. Leaf transmittance tends to have a non Lambertian distribution, while leaf reflectance is dependent on illumination and view angles. Knowledge of soils radiation interaction with individual leaves is necessary for several reasons like special to interpret and process remotely sensed data. Typical reflectance and transmittance spectrum of a individual plant leaf indicate three distinct wavelength regions in interaction: visible (0.4-0.7  µm), near infrared (NIR) (0.7-1.35  µm) and mid infrared (mid IR) (1.35-2.7  µm). Thus the typical spectral curve of plant is divided into three prominent zones correlated with morphological/anatomical/physiological characteristics of the leaves and these are Pigment Absorption Zone, Multi-Dioptric Reflectance Zone and Hydric Zone, etc. The analysis of all remotely sensed data involves models of many processes wherein the EM radiation is transformed (the scene, atmosphere and sensor) and whereby inference is made about the scene from the image data. The most common strategy for relating remote sensing data to vegetation canopies has been via the correlation of vegetation indices with vegetation structure and functional variables. This simple empirical approach has yielded substantial understanding of the structure and dynamics of vegetation at all scales. These indices are capable of handling variation introduced in a scene due to atmosphere or sensor and vegetation background influence in low vegetation cover areas. The capacity to assess and monitor the structure of terrestrial vegetation using spectral properties recorded by remote sensing is important because structure can be related to functioning, that is to ecosystem processes that are ultimately aggregated up to the functioning of the local-regional-global level of ecosystem. The categorization of the various spectral indices in to approximately five types. Such as Ratio Indices, Vegetation Indices, Orthogonal based Indices, Perpendicular Vegetation Indices and Tasseled Cap Transformation, etc. Remote sensing of cropland, forest and grassland involves the measurement of reflected energy of component in the presence of each other. The development and usefulness of vegetation indices are dependent upon the degree to which the spectral contribution of non-vegetation component can be isolated from the measured canopy response. Although vegetation indices have been widely recognized a valuable tools in the measurement and interpretation of ‘vegetation condition’ several limitation have also been identified. They are related to soil brightness effect and secondary soil spectral deviations. The use of site specific soil lines reduces soil background influence. In this context SAVI, GRABS and PVI holds greater promise in low vegetated areas. The vegetation indices are simplified method to extract information about vegetation parameter from multispectral data however, their use in spectral modeling needs to be studied in context of spectral dynamics of earth surface components. 2.8Resume`: Forest cover is an important natural resource for the environment and socio-eco on the surface of the earth. It can bridge the gap between nature and human beings conflicts. Changes in the forest land increase the imbalance in the ecosystem, climatic conditions, temperature, land degradation, drought prone zones, soil erosion, depending manmade activities, etc. The living tribes in the mountain hill as well as foot hill area utilized forest material for their domestic usages. Therefore, the objectives of detection and delineation of the forest land by using ordinary classification methods have been outlined in the present study. The methodology has been outlined in this chapter. The Landsat-5 TM and Landsat-7 ETM+ dataset has been suggested as a source of information to achieve the objectives of the study. The basic knowledge regarding spectral properties of the forest and physiographic elements as well as spectral vegetation indices area has been proposed for the second chapter to m ake information base study for image analysis, classification and interpretation in the next chapters. *********

Essay --

A market is a process of buyers and sellers exchanging good and services. Buyer is a group that determines the demand side of the market, whether it is consumers purchasing goods or firm purchasing inputs, while seller is a group that determines the supply side of the market, whether it is firms or companies selling their goods or resources owners selling their inputs. So, the market can be an interaction of buyers and sellers that determine market prices and output through the forces of supply and demand. DEMAND The definition of the demand is the amount of goods that consumers are willing and able to buy at a particular price. According to law of demand, there is an inverse relationship between price of goods and quantity demanded of goods and services. In a better way of explanation, when price of goods and services increase, the quantity demanded for foods and services will be decrease, vice versa. There are some reasons that show that why there is an inverse or negative relationship between price and quantity demanded. Firstly, since everyone likes to save money and buy cheap goods, so, consumers will only buy more goods and services at lower prices than higher prices, vice versa. Next, another reasons for negative relationship is diminishing marginal utility, which means, in a given time period, a buyer will feel less satisfaction from each successive unit consumed so consumers will only buy added units if the price was reduced. Lastly, there are the substitution and income effects of a price change. For the substitution effect, it states that an increase in the price of goods will encourage customers to buy alternatives goods, for example, when the price of meat increases, the quantity demanded for meat will be decrease as ... ... the indirect business tax increase, people will invest less and lead the aggregate demand to be decrease, ideally to a long-run, full –employment level of RGDP. This results a lower price level and full employment output; a new short and long-run equilibrium. After government had lower the government spending, increase the taxes and lower the transfer payment, the aggregate demand will be decreasing. Then with the help of multiplier, the aggregate demand curve shifts to the left even further. LRAS PRICE LEVEL SRAS Multiplier effect RGDPNR In a nutshell, when there is no more shortage or surplus problem, quantity demand is equal to quantity supply; there will be market equilibrium and after government had applied the expansionary fiscal policy for recession and contractionary fiscal policy for inflation, the economy problems will be solved.